1. Foreword

2. Preface

3. The relativity of our perceptions

4. Natural speed, size and time scale

5. Geometric similarity

6. Viewing the reality from different scale

7. Universal similarity

8. "As above, so Below"

9. Forces of interactions

10. Gravitational "Constant" for the Microworld

11. Attraction as a function of repulsion

12. Back to the Ether

13. Planck’s Constant or Angular Momentum?

14 Toward the Super-Unified Field Theory.

 

References

Foreword

The author wishes to address the thinker who is not satisfied with past explanation and theories about the structure of the Universe. The article is primarily intended for generally educated readers, both atheist and believer.

In the article, we will calculate and compare the numerical results, or magnitude, of some general properties of matter such as:

• the linear dimensions of the object or its radius (r),

• the time (t) that is required to displace the object, or the process to flow,

• the mass of the object (m),

• the rate at which body moves; its speed, or velocity (v),

• the rate of which body change the velocity ; its acceleration (a).

Also we should recall that some force (F) must act upon a material object before any change in motion occurs.

The units of measurement of the International System (SI) will be used in this manuscript:

• The unit of length - the meter.

• The unit of time - the second.

• The unit of mass - the kilogram.

The unit of force will be measured in Newton’s (N), one Newton of force imparts an acceleration of one meter per second squared to a mass of one kilogram. Thus the dimensions of force equal:

(kilogram) x (meter) x (second) ^-2

or

(kilogram) x (meter) / (second) ²,

which means the same as Newton (N).

Scientific Notation

We shall have to deal with numbers that are extremely big, such as:

1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,

which is believed to be approximately the radius of our galaxy in meters, and we can express that number as 10 ²¹ meters. Also, we shall deal with numbers that are tiny, such as:

0.0000000001 of meter (or 100 trillionth of meter),

which is approximately the radius of the atom, and we can express that number as 10 ^-10 meters. The method of expressing numbers as powers of 10, or exponents of 10, or as an order of magnitude is as simple as it is economical. When we have to multiply two such powers of 10, we simply add their exponents. Thus one million times one billion is:

(10 ⁶) x (10 ¹²) = 10 ¹⁸,

and

(10 ^-12) / (10 ¹⁸) = 10 ⁶

Similarly, if we encounter some fraction of ten, and we need to divide two such numbers, we simply subtract their exponents. Therefore, four trillion divided by two million is:

(4 x 10 ¹²) / (2 x 10 ⁶) = 2 x 10 ⁶, or 2,000,000

while

(10 ^-15) / (10 ^-5) = 10 ^-10 ,

and

(10 ^-12) / (10 ⁵) = 10 ^-17.

Let us divide the material world into three groups:

• the Microworld, which refers to the world of subatomic particles, atoms and molecules,

• the Macroworld , which refers to stars and planets such as our Earth and the Sun and

• the Astroworld , which refers to stellar formations, such as galaxies and galactic formations.

As a matter of fact, we ourselves and surrounding as thinks exists between the world of Microstructures and the world of Macrostructures. the other hand , we ourselves and all Macrosubstances simultaneously consist of Microsubstances and are counterparts of the Astrowold.

Scientists believe that the Macroworld and the Astroworld are interconnected and held together by gravitational attraction. The Microworld, however, interconnected and held together due to:

• the electromagnetic force,

• and two internal forces, known as

• the weak forces, and

• the strong (or nuclear) force.

Since the gravitational forces appear to be from 10 ³⁵ to 10 ⁴⁴ times weaker than electromagnetic and nuclear (strong) forces of interaction, scientists assume that gravity plays practically no direct role in the Microworld.

Another obvious distinctions between gravitational and electromagnetic forces is that gravity only attracts, while electrical forces can either attract or repel. Also, gravity cannot by shielded as electricity and magnetism can

At the same time our conceptions about electromagnetic and gravitational interactions are somewhat similar. Thus, as charged objects accelerate, they produce a magnetic field. Conversely, electrically charged objects are altered in motion when a magnetic field, moves through.

Similarly, scientists believe that the acceleration of both Macrobodies and Astrobodies exerts gravitational field, or gravitational radiation [1], and that gravitational fields cause both Macrobodies and Astrobodies to change their state of motion.

Therefore, scientists constantly hope to discover a unified essence of force that governs all interactions and some similar mechanisms that will explain rising fields at any scale, from sub-microscopic to the infinite.

Although some of the world’s greatest scientists continue to study this problem, no one has yet successfully proven that interaction on both atomic and galactic level are really two different manifestations of the same phenomenon.

This manuscript will not attempt to discover any new unified force or field of interactions, but, rather, to show that the known interactions in the Micrworld, Macroworld and Astroword appear to us incompatible primarily because of the subjectivity and relativity of our perceptions, measurement and analysis.

This work will attempt to convince the thinker that a qualitative similarity in both the underlying structure and the forces of interactions might exist between basic subatomic and galactic formations.

Whether viewed from the standpoint of the most recent scientific theories or the supposition of ancient thinkers and mystics, the material world represents various forms, or manifestation of matter-energy.

Basically our knowledge of the world depends on our ability to interpret the vibrations or radiation that we receive through our senses of sight, touch, hearing and smell. Consciousness is the state of the human mind that reflects and interprets the vibrations of matter-energy received through our senses.

The range of perception of our five senses is far too limited to register the full range of radiation that permeate the Universe. Because man perceives time, space, mass, and energy through such limited faculties, he is confinedto a limited, and not always reliable, comprehension of the material world. 

Albert Einstein was the first scientist to apply the relativistic approach to our analysis of what we call "reality". Since Einstein presented his Special Theory of Relativity, many scientists believe that the mass, space, and time are not absolute, unchanging entities, but are elastic, and can be stretched or contracted by motion.

For example, if we could place a clock in space vehicle as it approached the speed of light, then, according to Einstein, it would run far more slowly than the same clock sitting on a shelf in your home. This leads to the familiar "twins effect".

If one twin were to travel in space at a speed that approached the speed of the light while the other twin remained on Earth, the astronaut, upon returning to Earth, would find his twin brother much older than himself.

During the time that the astronaut traveled at a speed approaching the speed of light, every year of his life corresponded to several years in the life of a person moving at terrestrial speed.

In this paper we will not consider whether or not this is true. We will, however, assume that, under Einstein’s theory, the twin brothers would have had different coordinates or scales of space - time. Their conclusion about reality would be different.

My twin brother’s perceptions

If, during his flight, our astronaut could have observed the speed and force of various processes on the Earth, he would have seen all terrestrial activities, such as the movement of cars and the growth of trees, taking place on a much more intensive level than people on the Earth would perceive them. Because of the speed at which astronaut was traveling, his biological, physical and mental activities would have been different from ours, as would his notion of "strong", "fast" and "large".

Now, if we agree with Einstein that, as a speed or gravity changes, the mass, linear dimensions and time coordinate of an object also change, then it logically follows that objects that have different mass and different spatial dimensions, each possess their own, individual natural speed and characteristic time to complete one cycle of a natural process in their motions. Therefore, all internal and external forces will effect them differently.

The observer may also be such an object. Such concepts as fast and slow, long and short, large and small, strong and weak are meaningless without a frame of reference. Such a frame of reference does, in fact, rest on our own physical capabilities, our human speed, our bodily dimensions, and the density of our tissues. We involuntary compare the properties of surrounding material objects with our own properties and our own rate of physical activity.

All properties of material objects (weight, density, solidity, etc.) - as well as the magnitude of the forces of interaction between objects - are relative conceptions and depend on the such quality as the spatial dimensions and mass of the observer.

If, for example, we had been born into the Microworld, what would our consciousness reflect about the properties of compound?

Natural speed, size and time scale

No a single process or object exists separately and independently. Each interacts with other bodies in space and time by means of various fields.

At the same time, any object represents a structure or system of interconnected elements, and every one of those elements is, itself, a structure.

Furthermore, no object is totally at rest. Even a rock on the surface of the Earth is in constant motion, together with the Earth, as the Earth spins on its axis and rotates around the Sun, which moves through our solar system, as it moves around the nucleus of our galaxy, and so forth.

We can only guess at the absolute distance that any object travels in a given time period; however, we can measure the distance that it moves with respect (i.e., relative) to some particular observer.

Basic movement

From the time of Aristotle, men have believed that natural motion was inherent in the nature of bodies.

The natural speed of elements that make up a body and the natural speed of the body, itself, are functions of the internal and external natural forces of interactions currently acting on that body.

Waves, oscillation and rotation around the center of a mass are the three basic types of natural motion in the Universe.

The speed (v) of a material body during circular motion around some given center can be expressed by the equation:

v = lf = 2pr / t (meters) / (seconds)                                                   Formula (1)

where:

(l) is the wavelength or circumference,

(t) is the period or time required for the passage of one wave through a given point in space, or the time

required for a full rotation around some point,

(f) is the frequency of oscillation or rotation: f = 1/ t (second) ^-1,

(r) the radius, and

(p) is the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its radius (approximation is equal to 3.14).

The acceleration (a) may then be determined using the Newton-Huygens formula:

a = 4p ²r / t ² (meters) / (seconds) ²                                                         Formula (2)

For an example of such motion of some matarial substance around some center on the Astronomical scale, let us look at our solar system.

According to astrophysics, the radius (r) of our galaxy is on the order of 10 ²¹ meters. The period (t) required for one rotation of our solar system in its circular orbit around the center of our galaxy is believed to be on the order of 10 ¹⁶ seconds. The frequency (f) of this process and the number of rotation per our unit of time (one second) will be 10 ^-16.

For an example of such motion of some material substance around some center in the Microworld, let us look at an electron.

The radius (r) of the orbit of the rotation of an electron around the nucleus in hydrogen atom, for example, is on the order of 10 ^-10 of a meter.The period (t) required for one rotation of an electron around the nucleus is on the order of 10 ^-15 of a second. So the frequency (f) of the process and number of rotation per our unit of a time (one second) will be on the order of 10 ¹⁵ or 10 to the 15th. power.

How swift we are?

During uniform motion we ordinarily define the speed as the distance traveled during a giving time period.

If we assume that the linear dimension (d) of any object is the distance traveled, then the speed (written in the same form as the wave formula, above, except that the wavelength will be the length of the object and the period will represent the time required for the length of the body to pass a given point) will be:

v = d / t (meters) / (seconds),                                                       Formula (3)

and the acceleration will be:      

                                                                 a = d / t ² (meters) / (seconds) ²                                               Formula (4)

For simplicity, let us consider the average human trunk to be one meter in linear size. The trunk is the main mass of the human body. Since, the word trunk sounds to anatomical let as call it jast a human body. Walking at a leisurely pace, a person of this dimension develops a speed of approximately one meter per second. This is because our natural walking speed basically depends upon:

a) our size and mass

b) the acceleration of a free-falling body (g), which, on the Earth’s surface, is equal to:

g = 9.8 (meters) / (seconds) ².

Under these circumstances, a man can travel a distance equal to the length of his body during one second.                       We can say that our natural human waking speed is:

v = d / t = 1 meter / 1 second = 1(meter) / (second)

It happens that the linear dimension of our body (d) and the period of time (t) required for passage of this linear dimension through a given point are on the same order of magnitude as the unit of length in (SI) (one meter) and of time (one second).

Let us call this period (t) 1 second - our human time-scale.                                                                                         People or animals with smaller bodies and, accordingly, shorter legs, walk with a quicker stride than big ones. In the flight of a bird, the frequency of its wing beats decreases as the size of the bird increases. The heartbeat of a human baby is twice as fast as that of adult.

Everywhere in nature, we observe the interrelation - expressed mathematically in our wave formula Formula (1), between:

b)    linear size or radius, and

The relativity of our time – scale             

We see that, during that same one second (our human time-scale), we register an enormous number of rotation of electrons around the nucleus of an atoms in the Microworld and only a tiny fraction of any process in the Astroworld.

Therefore, we may assume that any species of observers which differs from us in mass, linear dimensions, and time-scale will interact with the Universe on a different level than we do and would have physical, biological, and mental activities correspondingly different from our own. What we consider quick and strong might be slow and weak from their point of reference. Similarly, their perceptions about the properties of the material world will be different from ours.

Geometrical Similarity

Everywhere in the nature, we see that objects of different size and mass are different in shape and exhibit different behavior. They also need a different duration of time to accomplish some similar action. A change in quantity leads to a change in quality.

As the simpliest example of similar objects, we can examen and compare the behaviour of two pendulums of different lengths. The square of period (the time necessary for one swing, to and fro, of the pendulum) will be:

t ² = 4p ²d / g (seconds) ²                                                                         Formula (5)

Where:

(t) - the time for one full swing, to and fro.

(d) -the length of pendulum.

(g) - the acceleration of a freely falling body on the Earth’s surface.

The ratio of the square of the periods of two pendulums of different length will be:

t ² / t’ ² = d / d’                                                                       Formula (6)

Since circular velocity v = 2pd / t, we can write:  

v ² = 4p ²d ² / t ² and v’ ² = 4p ²d’ ² / t’ ²

therefore

v ² / v’ ² = d ² x t’ ² / d’ ² x t ²

substituting the ratio t’ ² / t ² for the ratio d’ / d, according to formula (6), we will get:

v ² / v’ ² = d ² x d’ / d’ ² x d = d / d’ , and thus:

v ² / v’ ² = t ² / t’ ² = f’ ² / f ² = d / d’                                                     Formula (7)

In our everyday experience, we do not see the geometric similarity [2] between plants or between animals that are have same density, but vary significantly in size - that would seem contrary to nature. However, some plants or animals that are relatively close in size we might consider geometrically similar. Also, within a reasonable difference in size, we can build some structure or mechanisms that are geometrically similar.

How the effects of gravity, acceleration and the ability to withstand a load (including the load of that object’s own weight), will wary for structures that are different in size and mass but geometrical similar is reflected in "model laws" and "similarity mechanics" that engineers and architects use in modeling analyses of structures.

Laws of "similarity mechanics "describe the relationships between performance of experimental models and "real-life" objects.

4 times bigger is not necessary 4 times quicker

For example, we can predict the performance of the prototype of a car, aircraft, or ship by testing a small model, because we can compute the relationship between their speed, the time to accomplish similar actions, and the frequency of rotation of engine of the model with a full-sized, geometrically similar prototype of that model by using Formula (7).

In animate nature we also observe the same relationship between the size, the time to accomplish similar action and walking or running speed.

Consider two representatives of the animal kingdom - the cat and the tiger. They are nearly geometrically- similar creatures that differ only in their linear dimensions and, accordingly, in their masses. Therefore, their natural speeds and times to accomplish similar motions will differ just like to those two pendulums of different length.

Let us assume that a cat 0.4 meters in length can run at a speed of 20 kilometers per hour (or, 5.5 meters per second). What speed, then, can the tiger reach, when the linear dimensions of the tiger are bigger than the cat by, let us suppose, a factor of 4 (which translates to 1.6 meter in length)?

According to Formula (7):

v ² (tiger) / v ² (cat) = d (tiger) / d (cat)

v ² (tiger) = d (tiger) x v ² (cat) / d (cat) = 1.6 x 5.5 ² / 0.4 = 121

So, v (tiger) = square root of 121, what is 11 meters per second or about 40 kilometers per hour.

Their period or time-scale will differ as:

t ² (tiger) / t ² (cat) = d (tiger) / d (cat) = 1.6 / 0.4 = 4

t (tiger) / t (cat) = square root of 4 = 2

Thus, according to model lows or lows or lows of similarity mechanics, our cat moves through life at an intensity of two times greater than that of the tiger. A cat’s physical activity (such as its heartbeat or a jump), for example, will be twice as quick as a tiger’s.

Further, let us see why geometric similarity is impossible when the difference in size and mass between objects is much greater than the difference between our cat and our tiger.

Now, let us suppose, there exists a species called Lilliputians, the inhabitants of an imaginary island in Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels. Further, let us assume that the linear dimensions of such Lilliputians are smaller by a factor of 100 than our own dimensions. For the sake of simplicity, we shall assume again that the length of our body (trunk) is equivalent to one meter , that our natural walking speed is one meter per second, and our mass is in the order of 10 ² kilogram.

If, in addition to sharing a geometric similarity with us, such a Lilliputian had the same density of physiological tissue that we do, then the length of his body will be equal to 0.01 meters, and his mass will be one milion times less than ours, giving him a weight of about 0.1 grams.

We can determine his walking speed by using Formula (7):

v ² (lil.) = v ² (man) x d (lil.) / d ² (man) = 1 x 0.01 / 1 = 0.01

v (lil.) = square root of 0.01 = 0.1 meters per second.

On the basis of Formula (3), the period or time-scale of the Lilliputian will be:

t = d / v = 0.01 / 0.1 = 0.1 (seconds).

So the frequency or the number of lengths of his body that pass a given point in one second will be:

f = 1 / t = 1 / 0.1 = 10 (seconds) ^-1

Such a Lilliputian would exist 10 times more intensely than we do, and would be 10 times as agile. Accordingly, he would require less time than we do to accomplish corresponding biological and physiological actions. We would perceived all his actions as moving ten times faster than our corresponding actions. However, based on his scale of space-time, he would consider that passing through a distance of 10 times the length of his body during a time period of one second as just normal as we consider normal to pass through a distance of just one length of our body during the same second.

He would also perceive all of our human actions as being slowed down by a factor of 10, just as we perceive the motion of creatures mach larger than ourselves to be proceeding at a slower rate.

Even if our Lilliputian should choose the same units of measurement that we use, so that the numerical values of speed, acceleration, force and so forth in his calculations would be the same as in ours, all existing forces would affect him in a different degree.

Journey in to another scale

If we set out to learn how an object or creature of a different scale would experience speed, acceleration, force, and so forth , we could analyze one single rotation, cycle, or phase of the phenomenon that we want to examine. We would:

a) Calculate the frequency or the number of rotation, or the cycles of the process per second, or the number of lengths of the body that pass a given point in one second;

b) Write down the formula of dimensions of quality to be determined. For example, as we have mentioned above, the formula of dimensions of such quality as a force will be:

Newton or ( kilogram) x (meter) / ( second) ².

c) Determine where in this formula our measure of time (the second) occurs - (in the numerator or in the denominator) and to what power it is raised;

d) The result of calculation of some quality (velocity, force, power, energy, or whatever) should be either

•  multiplied by frequency of the phenomena raised to the corresponding power (if the measure of time in the formula of dimensions is located in the numerator)

or

• the magnitude of the calculation of some quality should be divided by the frequency of the phenomena raised to the corresponding power (if the measure of time is located in denominator).

For example,we already know the frequency of such action as walking speed of our Liliputian (or the number of lengths of the body of our Lilliputian that pass a given point in one second) is:

f (lil.) = 10 (seconds) ^-1

How such Liliputians will perceive gravitational attraction on the Earth ?

We know that the formula of dimensions of an acceleration is: (meter) / (second) ²

The measure of time is the second, - (it is squared and is located in the denominator). The gravitational acceleration (g) on the surface of the Earth which is equal to 9.8 meters / (second) ², should be divided by the frequency squared, so gravitational attraction will affect a Lilliputian 100 times less that it will affect us:

g (lil.) = g / f ² (lil.) = 9.8 / 100 = 0.098 (meters) / (time-scale of a Lilliputian)²

In addition, since the linear dimensions of such a Lilliputian is smaller than ours by a factor of 100, and he is sharing geometrical similarity and the same density of tissue with as, the cross-section of his legs would be smaller than ours by a factor of ten thousand, but his weight would be less than ours by a factor of one million. Of course, such Lilliputians, if they were to exist, would have a shape different from ours - their legs would be thinner in relation with their bodies than those of a normal-size human being.

That is why geometric similarity of objects of different size and mass appears contrary to nature.                               Creatures that are smaller than we are in linear dimensions, let us say, by a factor of 100 like some insects have a different body structure than we have.

Why the lizard can climb up on the tree but not a crocodile ?

However, like our imaginary Lilliputian, that insect (the ant, for example), can cover a distance of 10 times its body length during one second. As we do, an ant moves through a distance equivalent to its length during its period (an ant’s time-scale), which is about 0.1 of second.

Like a Lilliputian, the ant would experience gravitational acceleration on the surface of the Earth approximately 100 times weaker than we do.

Therefore, it should not surprise us that the ant can easily move objects much heavier than its body. For the same reason, the casual hop of a flea is the equivalent of a jump over 40-story building for a creature the size of a man. The fact that a fly can freely run upside down on a ceiling loses its mystery when we understand that the force of gravity affects the fly much less than we think.

Similarly, that fly can travel so many lengths of its body during one second ( our time-scale), that it appears to us far more agile than we see ourselves. The real difference lies in the scale of our subjective perceptions. So far as the fly is concerned, it is flying at a leisurely pace, as it sniffs the air, looking for a place to alight and for a bite to eat.

Poor dinosaurs, they have been too overweight

On the other hand, suppose that somewhere on Earth there a giant whose linear dimensions were greater than ours by a factor of 100. With a body size of 100 meters, a shape geometrically similar to our body structure, and the same density of tissue as our own, the mass (M) of such giant would be greater than ours by a factor of one million – so he would weight about one hundred thousand tons or 10 ⁸ kilograms.

According to Formula (7), the period (t) (or, the time that required to travel a distance equal to the length of his body) will be 10 seconds.

Therefore, the frequency (f) (or, the number of lengths of the body of this giant that pass a given point in one second) will be:

f (giant) = 1 / t = 1 / 10 (second) = 0.1 (seconds) ^-1

The numerical magnitude of gravitational acceleration on the surface of the Earth should be divided by (f) squared, which means that the gravitational acceleration perceived by this giant will affect him 100 times stronger than its affects us:

g (giant) = g / f ² = 9.8 / 0.01 = 980 (meters) / (time-scale of giant) ²

Obviously, then, such a giant could not exist on the Earth. If he had a shape and tissue density similar to ours, he would be crushed by his own weight. To feel as comfortable as we do on the surface of the Earth, this giant would have to select a planet with gravitational field about 100 times less than our gravitational field.

Experts in modeling analysis of structures know how to determine whether a construction on the drawing board will be capable of withstanding its own weight, when it is built. For that; the small geometrically similar model of a projected structure, if it were made of the same material as the prototype, should be tested with a load exceeding the weight of its parts by as many times as the model is smaller in linear dimensions than the designed structure (prototype).

Alternatively, we can achieve the same result (to predict the capability of withstanding their own weight) if the geometrically similar to the model under test projected or designed structure ( prototype) is made of a material that is as many times lower in density than the material of the model as the model is smaller in linear dimensions than the projected structure.

Universal Similarity

Of course the definition of similarity is a tricky one because , as we mentioned above, we do not see in our earthly surrounding, geometrically similar objects that differ greatly in size. Plants and animals that differ in size must have a different shape and body structure.

Full similarity

However, we can recognize that some of the phenomenon that we observe in Nature have geometric similaritryof. We can say, for instance, that waves of different frequency in some homogeneous medium are similar in shape if they have similar pattern and amplitude. Since the speed of their propagation (v) is the same and equal to the speed of light, than, according to formula (1), the ratio of their wavelength (l} will be equal to the ratio of their periods (t).

v = l / t and v’ = l’ / t’ since v = v’

l / t = l’ / t’ and l / l’ = t / t’

We can also see this type of similarity in a gear, where the ratio of radii (r) of different (in size), interconnected cogwheels will be equal to the ratio of their periods of rotations around their axles. (t).

Let us call it Cogwheels Similarity.

From our previous examples, we see that, on the surface of the Earth, where (g) is a constant, if a model is smaller (in linear dimensions) than its prototype by a factor of 100, then the period (t) (or, the time required to complete one similar cycle), according to Formula (6), will be different not 100 times less, but only by a factor of 10.

Heavenly turf

Just as we do not see Cogwheels Similarity in the motion of formations that differ significantly in size here, on our own surrounding, neither do we see Cogwheel Similarity in the motion of formations that differ significantly in size on the Macro- and Astroscale.

According to Kepler’s law, the squares of the rotational periods of the planets around the Sun will be proportional to the cubes of their orbital radii and inversely proportional to GM:

t ² = k d ³ / G M

where

(k) is the coefficient that depends on the shape of the planet’s orbit,

(G) is the gravitational constant and

(M) the mass of the Sun.

Therefore, the ratio of the square of the rotational periods of any two planets will equal:

t’ ² / t ² = r’ ³ / r ³

However, when we compare objects on the subatomic scale (the Microworld) with the objects on the galactic scale (the Astroworld) the picture changes.

For example, the circular orbital velocity of an electron during its rotation around a proton, according to Formula (1) is:

v (micro) = 2pr / t

r - is the radius of the orbit of an electron (it is believed equal to 10 ^-10 meters).

t - is the period required for a full rotation of the electron around the nucleus of the hydrogen atom,                                   (most physicist believe that it is on the order of 10 ^-15 seconds).

Therefore,

v (micro) = 2 x 3.14 x 10 ^-10 / 10 = 6.3 x 10 ⁵ (meters) / (seconds)

Using this same formula, the circular orbital velocity of our solar system, for example, during its rotation around the nucleus of the galaxy, is:

v (astro) = 2pr / t

(r) - is the radius of the orbit of our solar system around the nucleus of the galaxy,                                                       (which astrophysicists believe to be equal to 10 ²¹ meters).

(t) - is the period required for a full rotation of the solar system around the center of our galaxy,                                   (which astrophysicists believe is on the order of 10¹⁶ seconds).

Therefore,

v (astro) = 2 x 3.14 x 10 ²¹ / 10 ¹⁶ = 6.3 x 10 ⁵ (meters) / (seconds)

Although the orbital velocity is the same, the diameter of the proton is as many times smaller than the diameter of the galaxy as many times the period of rotation of an electron around the nucleus of the atom is shorter than the period of rotation of some stellar formation around the nucleus of the galaxy. Thus, the periods and radii of these formations will be related like cogwheels and will satisfy our definition of Cogwheel Similarity:

t (micro- structure) / t (astro-structure) = r (micro- structure) / r (astro-structure)

Divine Architect

As we mentioned previously, to handle a relatively similar assignment, the bigger prototype should be as many time lower in density than the material of the model as the model is smaller in linear dimensions than the prototype.

Theoretically, if we set out to build a structure that is geometrically similar to the nucleus of, say, a hydrogen atom (the radius of the proton is on the order of 10 ^-14 meters), but bigger in linear dimensions by a factor of 10 ³⁵ (representing the difference in the radius between our galaxy and the nucleus of the atom), we should foresee that the density of this projected structure will be lower then the density of the nucleus of the hydrogen atom by the same order of magnitude (10 ³⁵). If this were not so, then there would be gravitational collapse.

Apparently, then, the Creator of the Universe has made the Microcosm a miniature version of the Astrocosm

If the radius of the proton is on the order of 10^-14 meters and its mass is about 10 ^-27 kilograms, then the density (r) of the atomic particle would be equal to:

Density = mass / volume, the volume of some spherical structure is equal approximately to its r ³, so:                                   

r (atom.part.) = 10 ^-27 / (10 ^-14) ³ = 10 ^-27 / 10 ^-42 = 10 ¹⁵ (kilograms) / (meters) ³

Similarly, if the radius of our galaxy, as we believe, equal to 10 ²¹ meters and its mass is on the order of 10 ⁴³ kilograms, then the density (r) of our galaxy would be:

r (galaxy) = 10 ⁴³ / (10 ²¹ ) ³ = 10 ⁴³ / 10 ⁶³ = 10 ^–20 (kilograms / (meters^{) 3}

               Therefore, the ratio will be:

r (atom.part.) / r (galaxy) = 10 ¹⁵ / 10 ^-20 = 1 0 ³⁵ (kilograms) / (meters^{) 3}

We see that the galaxy was created of material 10 ³⁵ times lower in density than the material of the proton. The radius of a galaxy is in 10 ³⁵ times bigger that the radius of the proton. The period to accomplish some similar action, like the rotation of some material substance around the nucleus, on a micro and astro-scale might be also differ by a factor of 10 ³⁵. Let us call that condition the Universal similarity.

r (Subatomic - structure ) / r (Astro –structure) ~

~ t (Subatomic - structure ) / t (Astro –structure) ~

~ r (Subatomicstructure ) / r (Astro –structure)                                      Formula (8)

Of course all such comparisons are both simplified and speculative. The diameters of the atoms and galaxies, the size of their respective nuclei, and their speeds of rotation can vary by many orders of magnitude.

We are not attempting in this manuscript to propose some particular figure to define that variation, but rather to persuade serious thinkers about the possibilities of qualitative similarity between micro and astrocosm.

Resemblance of incompatible

Theoretically, material formations at a subatomic and galactic scale might even be similar in shape and architecture in spite of (rather because of) the staggering difference in their size, characteristic time to complete alike actions, and density.

Again, the tremendous density of subatomic particles is a relative concept. If an observer could shrink his linear dimensions by 10 ³⁵ times, her time scale would be reduced by an equal amount. All properties of our material world, including her perception of the density of her surrounding Universe, would be different from ours.

We should also mention here that the similarity between Microstructures and Astrostructures , what we try to propose out of this paper, by no means implies identity. Each group of material substances (such as, elementary particles, atoms, molecules, stars, galaxies and so on), in fact, each element of every material substance, includes a different quantity of matter and is, therefore, unique.

However, the recurrence of some basic qualitative properties is possible between basic groups of material structures of the Microworld and basic groups of material structures of the Astroworld.

Philosophically, this recurrence can represent a sort of spiral of the evolution of matter from an infinitely small to an infinitely large manifestation.

Indeed, even within molecular scale, the properties of the known elements that make up our compounds reoccur with sufficient regularity for us to order those elements in a "Periodic Table" in which elements with similar "valences" (i.e., the same number of electrons in their outermost orbits) share similar properties.

On all scales - the Microcosm, Macrocosm and the Astrocosm - we observe that, although material substances differ in mass and size, they can be arranged in a hierarchy of structure that represents some finite number of basic qualitative groups of matter.

Let us look first at the Astro-Universe. This is a world of stellar formations. In all regions of space accessible to our observation, we see galaxies. Despite their various sizes, masses and shapes, they represent a particular qualitative group of material substances. The building material or elements of those various stellar formations, clusters, islands, and different types of galaxies are the stars.

In turn, although each stars might have its own distinctive size, mass and brightness, together they represent their own particular qualitative group of material substances - the stars.

In spite of tremendous distances between them (the distance between stars in our galaxy averages on the order of 10¹⁷ meters) [3], any star can participate in some gravitational interrelation with other stars to form a stellar constellations.

In turn, each stellar constellation can interact with other constellations to form galaxies that, in turn, interact with the others galaxies in a vast sea of space (rotating, moving, evolving or decaying in space and time).

If stars are the basic material - the "elements" - that compose the more complex Astro-phormations, it would be logical to imagine the existence in nature of tiny material bodies, let us name them Microstarss.

Such hypothetical Microstars , similar to their big sisters in our Astrocosm, could also participate in , let us say, Microgravitational relationships to form elementary particles like quarks and electrons.

It is no secret for many thinkers that elementary particles are not elementary, at all. Yet Aristotle believed that all material substances could be divided into ever- smaller parts, without any limit.

Matter is mostly empty space

The summary volume of space that might be occupied by the Microstars that make up such an elementary particle is negligible compared to the volume that is occupied by that complete particle, itself, as a structure – just as the summary volume that is occupied by the stars that make up some stellar cluster is tiny in comparison to the volume that is occupied by this solar clusters, itself, as a structure.

The fact is that matter is distributed in space, by natural forces of interaction, in such a way that everywhere the sizes of the material substances that make up more complex structures are many times smaller than the distances between those substances.

For example, if we imagine that a proton and a neutron in the atom are each one meter in diameter, than the smaller particles inside an atom (like quarks and electrons) would be less than one millimeter in size, while the entire atom would be about one hundred kilometers across.

In other words, any atom is mostly empty space. Its nucleus and surrounding electrons occupy only a tiny fraction of the volume of an atom.

Let us suppose, that average radii of our hypothetical Microstars are smaller than the average radii of our known stars by the same order of magnitude than the radius of the nucleus particle (such as, proton) of an atom is smaller than the radius of our galaxy;

r (prot.) / r (gal.) = 10 ^-14 / 10 ²¹ = 10 ^-35 , and so:

r(microstar) / r(star) = 10 ^-35, and

r (microstar) = 10^-35 x r (star)

Within the known Universe, both our sun and our entire galaxy are of average size. Since the radius of the sun about 10 ¹⁰ meters, the radius of our hypothetical Microstar could be in the order of:

r (microstar) = 10 ^-35 x 10 ¹⁰ = 10 ^-25 meters

What are Black Holes made of?

The distance between the stars in our galaxy averages on the order of 10¹⁷ meters. If we again use for comparison the difference between the radius of a galaxy and the radius of the nucleus of the atom, then the distance between Microstars that form Micrododies might be as much as 35 orders of magnitude smaller than the distance between the stars - or about 10^-18 meters.

If the density (r) of the galaxy is 10 ³⁵ times lower than the density of the proton, we can assume that the density of average star, like our sun, for example (the density of the sun is on the order of 10 ³) is also 10 ³⁵ times lower than the density of any such hipothetical Microstars . Therefore:

r (microstar) / r (star) = 10 ³⁵

r (microstar) = 10 ³⁵ x r (star) = 10 ³⁵ x 10 ³ = 10 ³⁸ (kilograms / meters) ³

Such a tremendous density might be the density of what science calls a black hole, in which the complete gravitational collapse of some macro- or astro-body might reduce its size and, therefore, increase its density to that of packed Microstars.

Invisible Matter

If such Microstars exist, they could be found in any region of space, but we would not be capable of detecting them with either our unaided senses nor our current instruments. Perhaps even such incredibly complicated Microgravitational formation of Microstars that we may call Microgalaxies would be undetectable.

We are physically capable of recognizing only a limited range of manifestation of matter. Even our best current instruments can only register such material things as these hypothetical Microgalaxies when they join in, let us say, a Microgravitational relationship to form subatomic particles particles, like quarks [4] and electrons.

It is not a new idea that space may contain some invisible and currently undetectable particles. Current candidates include neutrinos [5] with zero rest mass, or gravitons [6].

We can interpret Dirac’s theory to define a vacuum as an energy level crowded with fermions, from which particle-antiparticle pairs virtually arise and disappear.

However, in this article we will propose that a vacuum is crowded with our hypothetical Microgalaxies.

In accordance with the law of the conservation of mass and energy, during the complete decay or annihilation of material substances, the energy of radiation will be equal to the product of the mass times the speed of light squared, according to Einstein’s well known formula:

E = MC ²                                                                                           Formula (9)

This energy of radiation is released Microgravitational energy, which held together the atoms of a Macrobody before decay. After the annihilation or disintegration of any formations of our hypothetical Microgalaxies, thoseMicrogalaxies will dissipate into the cosmos and becomet the undetectable, for us, part of that free cosmic mater-energy field, that we perceive as a vacuum.

Thus we can say that, in Astroworld, Macroworld and Microworld, energy is not the only thing that cannot be destroyed. It is also possible that mass, as a basic attribute of matter, cannot be destroyed, although it can be disintegrated and synthesized into different manifestation of material formations (even if we are not capable of weighing or registering it, with our limited tools and perceptions).

In fact, the structural similarity of material formations on both the subatomic and galactic scale can only exist in the Universe in combination with the similarity of its corresponding forces of interactions.

Forces of interactions

As we have mentioned previously, physics recognizes four basic forces that act in the Universe:

A moving electric charge gives rise to a magnetic field, and variation of that magnetic field in turn produces an electric field, cousing a charged body to be attracted to, or repelled by, other charged bodies.

The strength of any electromagnetic force also depends on the "medium" between the charges. Usualy, a non-conducting material media placed between the charges produces a shielding effect and decreases the force.

1) The strong (or nuclear) force holds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. In general, this force binds inter-atomic elementary particles into a nuclear structure. This force has a very short range (about 10 ^-15 meters) and so it acts only within the nucleus.

2) The weak force is responsible for a variety of nuclear radioactivity decay processes - such as Beta decay, when a neutron decays into a proton and an electron.. It is a very short range of interaction (about 10 ^-18 meters) and, like the strong force, only affects objects within the nucleus of atoms. Its strength is a billion times weaker than that of the strong force.

3) The electromagnetic force holds electrons in orbit around an atom’s nucleus. This force is responsible for repulsion of like and attraction of unlike electric charges. It also governs the behavior of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is a long-range force, involving the electric and magnetic properties of elementary particles.

4) The gravitational force holds matter together, but it is so weak that its effect is only noticeable when large masses are involved. Therefore, it seems, gravity plays no practical role in the Microworld; it interconnects (and binds into the structures) only material objects on the Macroscale and Astroscale.

On the other hand,the gravitational force apparently acts across an infinite range in space and cannot, as far as we know, be shielded by any practical means.

Also, gravity is the only one of the four forces that can only attract; the strong, weak and electrical forces may either attract or repel.

The unifying differences

We that see these four fundamental forces have different character, behavior, manifestation and range. They also vary greatly in strength.

If we assign the strong force a "relative strength" of 1, then the relative strength of electromagnetism will be 10 ^-3, the weak force will be 10 ^-16 and the gravitational force a mere 10 ^-41.

Scientists since Albert Einstein have searched for a way to describe all four forces as manifistations of a single, unified force. To date, they have explained the link between the electromagnetic and weak forces, but they haven’t yet found any theory that unifies any of the other forces. Also, neither one has found why gravitational and electromagnetyic forces have such incredible difference in the magnitude.

From our human scale of space-time (which sits between the world of Microstructures and world of Astrostructure), we are not capable of registering the consistent evolution of processes on a subatomic level. This world is too small, from our perspective, and we cannot bring its whirling interaction to a stop in order to take a picture. However we can register different patterns and spectrums of space radiation caused by a change in the state of the motion, decay, synthesis of Microbodies or the collision between such Microsubstances.

On the opposite side, we cannot observe any consistent evolutionary processes on the Astronomical level either, - they occur too slow for us to see the difference. From our scale of space-time, it is difficult to measure, let us say, Astro-radiation or to register Astro-electromagnetism caused by decay, synthesis of Astrostructures or collisions between stellar formations.

Still, we can take a picture of Astronomical interactions (which we cannot do on the subatomic level), and we can read some valuable information from that snapshot. For example, because most visible galaxies have a spiral shape, we can assume that most galaxies are spinning structures.

Units of measurement conversions

Different branches of science and technology are engaged in research on various manifestations of matter and energy. Not surprisingly, these different disciplines focus on different concepts and so employ different units of measurement.

In dealing with a mechanical or gravitational interaction, we are usually operating with such concepts as a mass, length , time, force, work, energy, power and so on. When we deal with electricity, we apply such additional concepts as charge, current, voltage, inductance, capacitance, and resistance.

However, all units of measurement are based on a unified, essential framework - the quantity of matter that takes part in that process we want to measure, the region of space involved, and the time that it takes to accomplish some change in the state of motion or status of that object or the process. In many reference books of Units and Dimensions the mass, length and time are called primary or fundamental dimensions

The System International des Unites (SI) has expanded the list of primary dimensions as well as the list of primary units also defines primary units of Amper, for the dimension of electrical current (I).

The flow of an electric charge that transports energy from one place to another is electrial current.

One ampere is a flow of 6.25 x 10 ¹⁸ electrons or protons per second or one coulomb per second. At the same time, if one ampere of current is flowing, a force equal to 2 x 10 ^-7 Newtons will be exerted between two parallel conductors that are set one meter apart, along one meter of their length.

Thus we see how electromagnetic properties of matter are inseparably linked with fundamental units of dimensions and with the concepts of quantity of matter (mass), length and time.

It would be easier to visualize the qualitatively similar processes that might take place on the Microscale, Macroscale and Astroscale if we recall that the electrical units of the International System (SI) of measurement can be converted into the fundamental units (meter - kilogram - second) or the (MKS) System (also known as LMT Sistem). We can make such conversions from the electrical units of measurement of the International System into the (MKS) System using eguivalents ("conversion factors"), found in (dimensional analysis) reference books for physical science.

Thus, the electrical unit of charge (Q), using the dimensions of (SI) System, is – coulomb. The equivalent dimention of the coulomb in the (MKS) System is:

charge of one colomb or (Q) = (kilogram )^1/2 x (meter)^3/2 x (second) ^-1.

Accordingly, the equivalent dimensions of charge squared in the (MKS) System will be:

(charges)² or (Q)² = (kilograms) x (meters) ³ x (seconds) ^-2

Dimensions of potential squared (V²) (or voltage squared) in (MKS) System coincide with the dimensions of force (F):

(volts) ² or V ² = (kilograms) x (meters) x (seconds) ^-2 or (Newtons)

In fact, sometimes we artificially differentiate similar types of forces on the Astroscale, Macroscale and Microscale only by giving them different names and measuring them with different units of value.

No self-respected experimental physicist would use the term (or concept of) mass, for instance, to calculate certain interactions on the subatomic scale. Rather, he will talk in terms of electron-volts [7] .

We, however, are not self-respecting experimental physisists. In this work, with a bit simplification, we will try to calculate the force of any interaction at any scale (Micro, Macro or Astro) using the same well known formulas and the same fundamental units of measurements (meter, kilogram,second).

Most basic equation of force

In perhaps the physicist’s most basic, well-known equation, the force(F) is ordinarily defined as a product of mass (m) and acceleration (a):

F = m a (kilogram) x (meter) / (second) ² or (Newtons)                                Formula (10)

Also, for any system in the Astroworld, the Macroworld and the Microworld in which some smaller masses are orbiting other, larger masses, their acceleration according to the Newton- Huygens formula (2), will be equal:

a = 4p²r / t² (meters) / (seconds) ², so we can write that as:

F = m x (4p²r / t ²) Newton’s                                                  Formula (11)

Therefore, knowing a body’s (of our Earth, for example):

the radius (r) - [the orbital radius of the Earth is on the order of 1.5 x 10 ¹¹ meters] and

the period (t) - [one period of rotation of the Earth around the Sun is equal to one year or 3 x 10 ⁷ seconds],

we can calculate the magnitude of the acceleration of the Earth during its rotation around the Sun:

a (Earth) = (4 x 3.14 ²) x (1.5 x 10 ¹¹) / (3 x 10 ^{7) 2} =

= 6 x 10 ¹² / 9 x 10 ¹⁴ = 6.7 x 10 ^-3 (meters) / (seconds) ²

If, in addition, we know the mass of the Earth (m) [which is equal to 6 x 10 ²⁴ kilograms], we can calculate the magnitude of the force (F) of interaction between the Earth and the Sun:

F (Earth-Sun) = m x a = (6 x 10 ²⁴ ) x (6.7 x 10 ^-3) = 4 x 10 ²² (Newton’s)

Also, we can apply this equation (11) to calculate the magnitude of the forces of interactions between Microsubstances.

For example, we have enough information to determine the force of interaction between a proton and an electron in the hydrogen atom. Imagine that we do not know whether the force it causes is gravitational, strong or electrostatic.

The radius of an orbit of the electron (r) is on the order of 10 ^-10 meters.

The mass of the electron (me) is believed to be on the order of 10 ^-30 kilograms.

The period of one rotation (t) of an electron around the nucleus of the atom is on the order of 10^-15 of seconds.

So the acceleration will be:

a (elec.) = 4p²r / t ² = (2 x 3.14) ² x 10 ^-10 / (10 ^-15 ) ² = 4 x 10 ²¹ (meters) / (seconds) ²

and force of interaction between a proton and an electron:

F (elec.–prot.) = m x a = m x (4p²r / t ²) = 10 ^-30 x 4 x 10 ²¹ = 4 x 10 ^-9 (Newton’s).

According to Coulomb’s law, the force of electrostatic interactions between such a proton and an electron should be measured by the equation:

F = k Q (prot.) x Q (elec.) / r²                                                                      Formula (12)

Where:

Q (prot.) and Q (elec.) are the charges of the proton and electron (these charges are of the same magnitude, and each equal to 1.6 x 10 ^-19 coulombs).

r - is the distance between those charges or the radius of the orbit.

k - is the coefficient of proportionality and depends on the electrical constant or the dielectric penetrability in a vacuum. In the SI system of a measurement k = 10 ¹⁰ (meters) / (farads [8])

Therefore:

F = 10 ¹⁰ x (1.6 x 10 ^-19) ² / (10 ^-10) ² = 2.6 x 10 ^-8 Newtons

Thus, we have obtained neighboring orders of magnitude by using Formula (11) and Formula (12).

We can even calculate the value of the charge of some interacting object if we know its mass, orbital radius and period.

If one equates the formulas of electrostatic forces Formula (12) and Formula (11), s/he will get:

k Q ² / r² = 4p²mr / t ²

Q ² = 4 p² m r³ / k t² (kilograms) x (meters) ³ x (seconds) ^-2 or (coulombs) ²               Formula (13)

To demonstrate that this equation is valid, let us calculate the product of the charge of the same proton - electron pair:

Q (prot.) x Q (elec.) = (40 x 10 ^-30) x (10 ^-10) ³ / 10 ¹⁰ x (10 ^-15) ² = 4 x 10 ^-39 (coulombs)²

Since the charges of a proton and an electron are equivalent, so the charge of an electron will be:

Q (elec.) = Square root of (4 x 10 ^-39) = 6.3 x 10 ^-20 coulombs

The classical value of the elementary charge (the charge of an electron) is 1.6 x 10 ^-19 coulombs.

We see, therefore, that it is possible to calculate the electromagnetic value of an interacting objects if we know its not electrical values, such as the mass, period and orbital radius of that interacting object..

Similarly, knowing, for example, the mass of the Earth is equal to 6 x 10 ²⁴ kilograms, its orbital radius around the Sun is equal to 15 x 10 ¹¹ meters , and its period of rotation (one year or 3 x 10 ⁷ seconds), we can determine (although only figuratively, since the gravitational interaction and electromagnetic forces are not the same phenomenon) the product of the charges of the Earth and the Sun by using the Formula (13):

Q (Earth) x Q (Sun) = 4 x (3.14) ² x (1.5 x 10 ¹¹) ³ x ( 6 x 10 ²⁴) / 10 ¹⁰ x (3 x 10 ⁷) ² =

= 8 x 10 ³⁵ (coulombs) ²

The energy of interaction between two such charges expressed in the electrostatic form will be:

E(electr.) = k x (Q Earth x Q Sun) / r = 10 ¹⁰ x ( 8 x 10 ³⁵) / 1.5 x 10 ¹¹ = 5 x 10 ³⁴ joules

For comparison, we can calculate the kinetic energy (E) of the Earth during rotation around the Sun by using well known mechanical equation:

E = m v² / 2                                                                 Formula (14)

Where

m - the mass of the Earth (6x10 ²⁴ kilograms)

v - the velocity of the Earth in its circular orbit around the Sun (3 x 10 ⁴ meters per second), and:

E = 6 x 10 ²⁴ x ( 3 x 10 ⁴ ) ² / 2 = 3 x 10 ³³ joules

And again we get a magnitude that is comparable with the previous one.

So, in principle, it is possible to transform equations that express the electrical properties of phenomena into equations that reflect their gravitational interaction.

As we note, the equations of Force (11), include the characteristic time (the period of one cycle of interactions or duration of one period of rotation around the center of the mass. That is the reason why we can apply this equations to determine the magnitude of all forces of interaction on the Micrscale, the Macrscale and the Astroscale. Lets as call this formula of Force (11) Universal:

                                                                      F = m x (4p²r / t ²) Newton’s

However, when we apply the formula of Newton’s low, to calculate the magnitude of forces of interaction in the Micrscale, we find some apparent contradictions.

According to Newton’s law, the force of attraction between two masses is equal to:

F = G M m / r ²                                                                           Formula (15)

Where:

(G) - is the gravitational constant and in the International System of measurement (SI) this constant

is equal to 6.67 x 10 ^-11,

(M) - is the central bigger mass,

(m) - is the mass that rotates around the central mass (more precisely, around the center of the mass of

the system),

(r) - is the radius of circular orbit.

If , for example,

the mass of the Sun (M) is on the order of 2 x 10 ³⁰ kilograms,

the mass of the Earth (m) is on the order of 6 x 10 ²⁴ kilograms,

and orbital radius of the Earth (r) is equal to1. 5 x10 ¹¹ meters,

then, by using Newton’s Formula (15), we can determine the force causing this interaction:

F = (6.67 x 10 ^-11) x (2 x 10 ³⁰) x (6 x 10 ²⁴) / (1.5 x 10 ¹¹) ² = 3.4 x 10 ²² Newton’s.

We see that we have obtained the magnitude of the force that is very close to result we received previously by using our Universal Formula (11) of force.

But, when we apply the Newton’s equation to find the magnitude of the force of interaction between the objects in the Microworld, we get totaly different result, than we calculate the force of interaction in the Microworld with either Formula (11) or (12).

For example, the magnitude of the force of interaction between an electron (that has a mass on the order of m (electr.) = 10 ^-30 kilograms) with a proton (that has a mass on the order of M (prot.) = 10 ^-27 kilograms by using Newton’s Formula (15) we will get:

F = 6.67 x 10 ^-11 x 10 ^-27 x 10 ^-30 / (10 ^–10 ) ² = 10 ^-47 Newton’s

The difference in the magnitude of force of this interactions, that we calculate by using Newton’s equation in comparison with result we received previously by using Formulas (11) and (12) comprises:

10 ^-8 / 10 ^–47 = 10 ³⁹.

Thus, according the Newton’s Low, gravitational force inside an atom appear to be 10 ³⁹ times weaker than electromagnetic force of interaction between a proton and an electron.

That is why scientists believe that the Microstructures are not formed by gravitational forces of attraction. Rather, scientists believe that electromagnetic, strong (nuclear) forces hold together an atom as a structure.

However, everywhere in nature we observe that the forces that build up and hold together material bodies act in balance with the forces of repulsion, it is logical that Microgravitational force of attraction might be as strong as an electromagnetic force of repulsion.

Why do we have such a mind-bogging difference when we apply Newton’s Formula (15) to the Microworld?

It would appear that the magnitude of a gravitational constant is a constant only for the Macroworld.

Let us note that (G) is a scale-dependent constant. To satisfy the rule of dimensions in Newton’s Law, the gravitational constant should have the dimensions (meters) ³ x (kilograms^{) -1} x (seconds) ^-2, otherwise we would not obtain the dimensions of force (kilogram) x (meter) x (second) ^-2 or Newtons.

We can determine that dimensions of (G) if we equate the expressions for forces that we find in Formulas (11) and (15):

m x (4 p² r m) / t² = G M m / r²

G = 4 p² r ³ / M t ² (meters) ³ / (kilograms) x (seconds) ²                              Formula (16)

Because the density (r) of the object is equal to M / 4p² r ³ we can write a simplified expression for (G):

G = 1 / (density) x (period) ² = ( frequency) ² / (density)

G = 1 / r t ² = f ² / r                                                         Formula (17)

This equation tells as that the product of the density of a structure and squared period of the time that it takes to accomplish one cycle of rotation of this structure around its center of mass will have the same numerical value in both the Macroworld and the Astroworld.

We can obtain the same expression for (G) that we reached in Formula (16) from Kepler’s Law. According to Kepler, the squares of the rotational periods of the planets will be proportional to the cubes of their orbital radii and inversely proportional to GM:

t ² = k r³ / GM,

where (k) is the coefficient that depends on the shape of the orbit.

Again, since the density (r) is equal to M / 4p²r³ we can write:

G = k r ³ / M t ² = k x 1 / r t ²

Therefore, we can calculate trhe value of (G) when we know:

• the mass of central body, the mass of our galaxy, for example (according to astrophysicists, it is in the order of 10 ⁴³ kilograms),

• the period required for a full rotation of our solar system in its circular orbit around the Nucleus of the galaxy (this period is believed about 10 ¹⁶ seconds), and

• the distance from the Sun to the center of our galaxy (this radius is believed on the order of 10 ²¹ meters):

G = 4 x 3.14 ² x ( 10 ²¹ ) ³ / 10 ⁴³ x ( 10 ¹⁶ ) ² = 4 x 10 ^-11,

The result is close to classical value of (G) = 6.67 x 10 ^-11

Micro-Gravitation

We can now determine, by using Formula (16) the magnitude of the gravitational "constant" (G’) for the Microworld.

We know the mass of the proton, the radius of the orbit of an electron, and the period of one rotation of an electron around the proton:

G ’ = 4 p² r³ / M t ² = 4 (3.14) ² x (10 ^-10) ³ / 10 ^-27 x (10 ^-15) ² = 4 x 10 ²⁸

We see that the value of the gravitational constant, (the reverse product of the density of the interacting structures and the square of the period of time it takes to accomplish one cycle of rotation of this structure around the center of its mass) in the Microworld is bigger than in the Macroworld and the Astroworld by 10 ³⁹ orders of the magnitude.

Using Newton’s Formula (15) with a new value of gravitational constant for the Microworld (G’), the magnitude of the force of interaction between the proton and an electron will be comparable with the result that we obtain by using Formula (11) or Coulomb’s low Formula (12):

F = G’ x M (prot.) x m (elect.) / r ² = 4 x 10 ²⁸ x 10 ^-27 x 10 ^-30 / (10 ^-10) ² = 4 x 10 ^-9 Newton’s

We have seen that, when we set out to calculate the magnitude of the forces of interaction on the Microscale, Macroscale, or the Astroscale we should use the equations which include the period of time (t) required to accomplish one rotation, cycle or phase of the process as in Formula (11). If we want to use Newton’s law to calculate the magnitude of forces in the Microworld, we should employ a new value of gravitational constant. Then the magnitude of Microgravitational force of attraction that possibly build up the microbodies wouldbe as strong as the force of repulsion we measure in the nuclear reaction.

Moreover the mechanism of arising field of attraction at any scale has remained problematic.What is the cause of the gravitational attraction?

The Newtons theory of gravitation does not tell as about essence of that fenomenon. In the other words Newtons theory do not explain why the material bodies create aroundthemsselves a gravitational potential. Till present time gravitation – the mutual attraction betwee all masses in the universe, without axplonation.

We mentioned above that describing gravity as "a fundamental property of matter", or "the geometrical curvature of space-time" still doesn’t tell us much about the essence of this force.

Some scientists have claimed that gravity is not integral to matter but is the result of an active, intelligent force that is somehow above the physical world. Of cours, once people ascribed everithing in the entire Universe to an active intelligent force.

By defining attraction as an inherent property of matter, they admit that we simply do not know the true answer.

However, we believe that an explanation of the mechanism behind gravitational attraction is not beyond our comprehension.

The Particles Theory of Gravity

In the last few centuties, numerous investigators try to find the mechanism of gravity. Some thinkers have surmised that gravitational field is a function of cosmic particles pressure.

Let us propose that everywhere in the universe countless number of particles that flying around with grate speed. They are flying from all directions and some of those particles hit the material bodies. If we consider the mass of the Sun and the mass of the Earth, thay appear to shield each other from the pressure of these particles by absorbing part of particles with their respective masses. The pressure of particles in outer space will predominate over a pressure in a straight line connecting the centers of the masses of the Sun and the Earth. This differential will create a gravitational attraction that is inversely proportional to squared distance between any two bodies.

Moreover, main stream of scietists do not accept that explanation of gravity. Richard Feynman one of the brightest thysicist of our time describes the major difficalty with this interpretation of gravitational attraction as follows:

When a body (such as the Earth) revolves around a center (such as the Sun), that part of the body that faces in the direction of its motion must encounter a greater amount of particles that its opposite, or "back-facing" side. This would create a corresponding resistance to the orbital motion of the Earth, something that we do not observe.

However, we have to mention in this manuscript, that the Earth does not rotate because propulsion power is applied by some internal engine, but because, like any natural motion, it is in balance with the motion of the rest of the Universe.Therefore, any retardation of its rotation that it might encounter from energy-encountered pulses in front of it must be balanced by corresponding acceleration from behind generated by these external field. Besides, to notice some changes in the radius of earthly orbit and the perion of revolution around the Sun, we had to have more time than our human civilized observation.

Also, we have to mention that no matter how scientists try to discover a mechanism that might explain a rising field of attraction as an independent force, they can find nine.

The Unity of Contradiction

In our opinion, we have to rely on our previous, prove to be true knowledge. Apparently, it is easier to explain attraction as a function of repulsion. For example, when there are differences in atmospheric or water pressure, bodies will accelerate in the direction of the smaller pressure.

To see a simplified model when attraction caused by repulsion, we propose to look at an Ultrasonic Cleaner.

Water, or another solution, in the bath of the cleaner is bombarded by ultrasonic impulses. Hang two objects, such as plastic balls, on strings and sink them in the solution. The pressure of the ultrasonic impulses in the "outer solution" (i.e., the solution that does not lie between the two balls) will predominate over the ultrasonic field density in a straight line connecting the centers of the balls because the bolls are shielding each other by absorbing part of the ultrasonic impulses with their respective masses. The resulting differential creates an attraction that is inversely proportional to the distance between them, and the balls will unite.

Of course the interaction of material bodies in the cosmos is a much more complicated phenomenon. In our Macroworld, on the surface of the Earth, in particular, we see pure gravitational attraction. Yet, Microstructures and Astronomical structures not only absorb part of the cosmic impulses they receive, but they also emit or reflect the radiation.

Inertia

All material bodies, whether they belong to the Microworld, Macrworld, or Actroworld are normally in a state of a balance with the rest of the Universe. Any material object opposes any force that tries to alter this balance or change their position or state of motion. We call that resistance - inertia.

In the case of electricity, we have to apply a potential difference (valtage) between two points in the electric circuits or we have to change the magnetic field near the circuit to accelerate the Microcharges inside some Macroobject.

We can measure characteristic delay of a current in electric circuit in reaching its maximum value, or in returning to zero, after the sourse voltage has been removed or applied. Scientists call this property – electromagnetic inertia

When we alpply the force needed to accelerate some Macrobject we are by this "violent " force sims to change the established balance among the micro-elements that compose that Macrobody and the"vacuum" (that medium crowded with our hypothetical Microstars and Microgalaxies, as we proposed above). Inertia – which we defined as resistance to any change in the momentum of a body – manifest itself in the interactionamong the micro-elements of the Macrostructure and this medium - thespace.

It is likely that the shape and orientation in space of those Microstructures inside the material body that we are affecting by violent force would also be changed. The affected body would probably now assume that object’s new state of motion that is its new balance with the free cosmic field and with surrounding material structures.

Making Waves

A change in the balance between objects at any scale create the radiation that propagates in space. The flow of radiation, in turn, affects the motion of material substances. Scientists believe that all bodies are constantly both radiating (or at least reflecting) and, at the same time, absorbing some spetific range of radiation impulses.

A wave is something that can travel from one point in space (its "sours") to another (its "receiver") to impart its pulse of energy with minimum loss of energy and without any transfer of matter.

Since radiation is a wave, it can create pressure on a material body, or structure of bodies, at a distance, or it can interact with material structures across a space.For example, a soundwave can impart its pulse of energy across the air, across space (e.g., the sound wave from a cannon can brake glass).

Let us look first at the Astro-Universe. The nuclear fusion [9] of hydrogen to helium releases a tremendous amount of energy deep inside each stars. This energy gradually flows to the surface of the star and, from there, out into space. Each star emits a broad spectrum of radiation waves, ranging from radio wave (the frequencies of approximately 10⁵ hertz) to gamma rays (the frequencies of approximately 10¹⁸ hertz). Space is filled with these electromagnetic impulses.

This octave of space electromagnetic radiation will create the pressure on neighboring stars and stellar formations.

On average, the frequency (f) of such electromagnetic wave will be on the order of 10¹⁰ second ^-1.

We can calculate the average wavelength (l) of this octave of space radiations using Formula (1);

l = v / f = c / f , where (c) is a speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 10⁸ meters per second,

Therefore, l = 3 x 10 ⁸ / 10 ¹⁰ = 10 ^-2 meters, or one centimeter.

Because this radiation tends to disperse egualy in all directions, we can say, that, according to the laws of probability, any one galaxy or structure of galaxies in the Universe receives an equal amount of this electromagnetic radiation with equal probability from all directions.

Astro-Strong Interactions

As we said previously, the volume occupied by the stars that make up a galaxy is tiny compared to the volume occupied by the galaxy, itself. Therefore, most cosmic electromagnetic energy passes through a galaxy without encountering any resistance. However, some part of this radiation will also strike the stars of that galaxy and will, therefore, be absorb by those stars. The resulting "voltage drop" (figuratively speaking) in the cosmic electromagnetic field creates what we might call Astro-gravitational potential around each stellar formation.

As a wave of radiation moves through space, the amount of free cosmic energy that is loses will be proportional to the distance that this waves travel through the stellar structure, since the further it travel, the greater the possibility of encountering and interacting with some individual stars. Also, than greater the number of stars in a given volume of some stellar formation, the greater the density of that particular stellar formation, and, presumably, the greater the loss of cosmic energy. In electromagnetic terms, the bigger and denser a stellar formations will have the higher resistance.

Therefore, of course, there would be an enormous gravitational potential around any hypothetical black hole, because all electromagnetic radiation that strike it would get trapped in its tremendous density.

If one stellar formation should happen to incounter another at some proper distance, they would appear to shield each other somewhat from space radiation, by absorbing, with their respective masses, some part of that radiation.

Accordingly, the pressure of the cosmic radiation in the area between any two stellar formations, (along a path formed by an imaginary straight line connecting the centers of their masses), will be less than the average presure of cosmic radiation on any outer side of these stellar formations. This differential will create an Astro-gravitational attraction that will combine these individual stellar formation into new, Astro-structures , sach us interacting galaxies and, perhaps, even more complex substances that we can not even grasp, from our scale of space-time.

We can form some idea how Astro-structures would experience these Astro-gravitational forcesby using the procedure we have offered above in the shaptor ‘ Viewing reality from different scale’

In formula of dimensions of a force, the measuire of time is a second; it is squared and located in the dominator. Such processis like a collisions of some galaxies probably can take about 10²⁰ seconds, so the frequency of such a process will be on the order of 10^-20 (seconds)^–1. The magnitude of gravitational force of such intergalactic interactions by our calculation should be divided by the frequency squared. Thus, from galactic scale of space-time this force of interaction should be about 10⁴⁰ times stronger than numerical magnitude of (what we call gravitational force of such intergalactic interactions) our calculation.

These forces of Astro-interaction can be called Astro-strong , in spite of the fact that they are, from our scale of space-time, weaker by a factor of 10 ³⁵ - 10 ⁴² than atomic or nuclear forces.

Astro-gravitational structures may rotate around the center of its mass, or spin. Also, Astro-structures may represent Astrocharges. Similarly, some galactic formations may share stellar formation, some Astro-bodies with another galactic formation, in kind of galactic bonding, to form Astro-molecules.

However, it is impossible to see how any changes in the spin or motion of Astrostructures will rise Astro-electric and Astro-magnetic fields, because entire length of our observation of Astrocosm is only tiny fraction of interaction between the galactic formations.

Astro-Radiation

The radiation produced by the birth of pulsars, exploding the stars as supernovas, or the radiation produced by some galactic separations, collapses, and collisions will fill space with the next lower Universal octave of cosmic vibration which we will call the Astro-electromagnetic waves.

As we hypothesize above, the difference in radii between the basic formation on the Micro and Astroscale is on the order of 10 ³⁵. Therefore, let as assume that the average frequency (f) of this octave of radiation will be lower than the average frequency of an electromagnetic radiation by a factor of 10 ³⁵, or will be on the order of 10 ^-25 (1/ second) with a wavelength (l), according to Formula (1):

l = v / f = 3 x 10 ⁸ / 10 ^-25 = 3 x 10 ³³ meters

Back to the Microstars

Now let us return to our hypothetical Microstars. Although analogous to their sisters from the Macrocsm (i.e., stars, like our sun), the Microstars may emit a different spectrum of radiation. However, as we assumed above, the difference in the radius between our sun and some Microstar (10 ³⁵), than, we can suppose, that the frequency of their Microradiation should be higher than the average frequency of electromagnetic waves (emited by the stars) by an order of 10 ³⁵, or about 10 ⁴⁵ (1/second).

Their wavelength, than, according to Formula (1) will be on average on the order of:

l = 3 x 10 ⁸ / 10 ⁴⁵ = 10 ^-37 meters.

If our hypothesis is true, than the cosmos is also saturated with this higher octave of impulses (emited by our hypothetic Micristars). Saimilar to how the light freely travels across the space between the stars and galaxies, these micro-impulses will, almost without resistance, penetrate the chemical compounds of which all Macrostructures are composed. Of cours, as describe above, some part of this cosmic energy will be absorbed by the atoms and molecules that comprise all compounds and Macrobodies .

Consecuently, by our theory, this radiation emmited by Microstars plays a direct role in building up the gravitational field around the Macrostructures, stars and planets that make up our Macroworld.

Accordingly, a spherical body with a mass of one kilogram will create around itself a tiny gravitationa potential (V) which, at a distance of 1 meter, will be:

V = G M / d = 6.67 x 10 ^-11 x 1 / 1 = 6.67 x 10 ^-11                                Formula (18)

The loss of this free cosmic energy (due to absorption of part of this Microstars radiation by the atoms and molecules of Macrobodies) will be proportional to both the distance that waves travel within a substance or to the size and the density of the material body through which it passes.

We, ourselves, are exposed to Microstars radiation pressure emanating from all directions. Understandably, less cosmic radiation coming from the Earth, since a part of that cosmic Microstars impulses is absorbed by the terrestrial mass. This difference, as it exists on the surface of the Earth, createsthe acceleration of gravity..

If one could go to the center of the Earth, he should experience weightlessness, because the body (mass) of the Earth surrounding him absorbs an equal fraction of this theoretical space radiation from each direction.

Similarly, the mass of the Sun and the mass of the Earth appear to shield each other from that octave of cosmicMicro-radiation by absorbing part of it with their respective masses. As we said above, the pressure of a field in outer space will predominate over a field density in the straight line that connects the centers of their masses. This differential will create a gravitational attraction that is inversely proportional to the squared distance between their two bodies.

The balance of repulsion and attraction

Basic material substances, such as stars, function as Universal energy converters. They absorb part of a higher octave of cosmic impulses (our hypothetical Microstars radiation) and create a gravitational potential strong enough to hold adjacent planets or even to combine nearby stars into particular stellar formation. At the same time, these same stars emit a lower octave of radiation - the electromagnetic waves described previously. This electromagnetic octave of radiation (about 10³⁵ times lower in frequency than a Microstars radiation) creates pressure on neighboring stars (and neighboring gravitational formations of stars) to keep them separated at a some, relatively stable, distance from each other.

In other words, stars generate impulses that oppose gravitational attraction to stabilize their structures, thus, avoiding gravitational collapse of stellar formations.

At relatively small distance between material formations, (be it atomic nuclear particles or be it interacting galaxies) the static forces of gravitational attraction might be too strong, pulling the bodies toward a collision. However, as mentioned previously, the distances between material substances in space (both Astrocosm and Microcosm) are usually many orders of magnitude bigger than the radii of these substances, making such actual collisions unlikely.

Therefore, relatively stable material formations, on both the subatomic and galactic scale, will build up where the static gravitational attraction and radioactive repulsion of nearby bodies are both balanced and working together with centrifugal and centripetal forces [10].

In addition, the radiation from our hypothetical Microstars can seem to us as relatively "near" effect, while the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the stars can be understood as relatively "far" effect. The radiation that is emitted by Microstars is 10 ³⁵ orders of magnitude higher in frequency than the radiation emitted by stars. It it is possible that stars (electromagnetic) radiation propagates in space and still effects objects 10 ³⁵ further away than Microstar radiation can.

Many thinkers believe that propagation of light and other electromagnetic radiation through space requires some elastic substance to transmit all these waves. Before the acceptance of the theory of relativity, this elusive medium, believed to vibrate throughout space, was called ether.

In fact, the hypothetical Microgalaxies that fill all space, as we proposed above, may form this transmitting medium for the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation. An electromagnetic pulse can compress Microgalaxies, leaving behind a zone of lessened pressure - a rarefied region. If particular Microgalaxies, or groups of them, were to move or vibrate back and forth, the resulting pulse would travel across space, transmiting energy much the same way that sound wave pulses create vibrations in the molecules of any elastic medium, such as air.

Light and sound

The vibration of the Microgalaxiest in space would - like the wibration of moleculesin air - creates both longitudinal (or compressional ) waves and spherical (or shear) waves. Longitudinal waves create a displacement of particles of the transmiting medium along the direction of propagation. Spherical waves radiate outward of their sours, and oscillate perpendicular to the direction of longitudinal waves. When electrical charge oscillatates, the longitudinal and spherical waves act like vibrating electric and magnetic fields, radiating out, at the speed of light, at right angles to each other.

With sound, as the listener moves away from the sours of sound, sound waves take longer to reach the listener than when s/he is approaching the source. However, this does not seem to happen with light.

More than one hundred years ago, beginning with the team of Michelson and Morley, scientists performed experiments designed to measure the motion of the Earth through the hypothetical ether. The results showed that the speed of light is the same (costant), regardless of the motion of the source of light or the motion of the observer on the Earth.

Albert Einstein accepted the result of this experiment and concluded that, if an observer could travel at the speed of light and could measure the speed of light leaving him, it would measure the same (constant) speed in every direction. Since no wave behave like that in any known medium, scientists rejected the theory of ether .

However, we have to mention again that the Earth is not a rocket moving through the stationary ether under its own propulsion system. Its motion is determined by a combination of gravitational, electromagnetic and centrifugal forces. In addition, micro-particles, such Microgalaxies that hover close to the Earth’s surface, may follow the Earth in it rotation, like "captives," just as atmospheric particles do.

An the other hand, because light travels too quickly to us to measure directly, researchers, beginning from the interferometer of the Michelson-Morley Experiment, have had to use mirrors, and actually measure the speed of reflected light.

Let us, by comparison, examine the speed of sound waves inside a closed, moving truck. Sound waves traveling through the air outside the truck will set the molecules of the truck’s frame vibrating. The frame, in turn, will set the neighboring air molecules inside the truck vibrating, transfering the sound wave from the air outside the truk to the air inside the truck. The speed of the sound waves inside the truck - transfered from the frame - are not affected by the motion of the source of the sound, nor by any motion of the truck.

So, if that sound sours, outside the truk, were to move,we would measure an increase or decrease in the frequency of the sound waves inside the truk, but no change in their speed. When either the source or the truck moves away from the other, we would measure a lower frequency, which we would heare as a lower pitch, or lower tone; and when the source or the truck approach each other, we would perceive a higher pitch or tone. This change in frequency, due to the motion of the source or receiver, is called in pyisics - the Doppler effect.

Light behaves the same way. When a light source approaches the observer, there is an increase in its measured frequency (called a blue shift of the spectrum) and, when it recedes, a decrease in its frequency (called a red shift of the spectrum). A rapidly spinning star shows a relative red shift on the side turning away from us and a relative blue shift on the side turning toward us.

When we try to measure the speed of reflecting light by reflecting it between a series mirrors, the speed measures the same, regardless of the motion of the source or the motion of the observer. In this sense, light acts like the speed of sound inside our closede truck. The only difference we can note is either a blue or red shift of the spectrum of light radiation.

Wave basics

In addition to the Dopler Effect, all the basic properties of waves apply to both sound and light propagation. These include:

1) Dispersion - the separation of a complex waves into its various frequency components.

2) Interference - the superposition (algebraic or vector addition) of different sets of two or more waves having the same frequency, that produces mutual reinforcement in some places, and cancellation in other.

3) Refraction - the bending or change it direction of propagation when waves pass obliquely from one medium to another medium of different density, thereby changing the wave’s velocity.

This similarity between sound and light waves should convince us that electromagnetic radiation must be transmitted through some elastic medium, and that bring us back to old ether.

TheAccordingly, scientists should examine the Michelson-Morley Experiment anew.

Floating in the See of Universe

Just as a jelly-fish mostly consists of water, so all material bodies consists of this ether.

We can guess how, let us say, the matter-energy level of an ether (which we perceive of as "empty space" or a vacuum), differs from the matter-energy level in the region of a space that contains material objects, if we draw an analogy between the speed of light in vacuum and the speed of light in some substance, for example, in water.

This ratio is called the index of refraction (n).

n = speed of light in a vacuum / speed of light in a water = 3 x 10 ⁸ / 2.2 x 10 ⁸ = 1.33

Since the speed of light in the water is so close to its speed in a vacuum, we may consider that its mater-energy level are almost equal in both.

A few conclusions

As we have proposed above, we can only perseive as a material substance and measure only the microgravitational formations of our hypotheticalMicrogalaxies. If we were to assign the average density of Microgalaxies in space (which, in our perception, is zero) equal to some number, than the density of any material bodies that occupy some volume of this medium-space will be just some increment of that number.

Our Microgalaxies consist of Microstars. These Microstars emit Microradiation, and Microgalaxies that are not engaged in microgravitational interaction repel each other and make up this elastic medium - the ether.

Also, some Microgalaxies may combine into microgravirational relationships that form elementary particles that evolve into atoms. These elementary particles are constantly interacting with each other by means of a particular spectrum of the cosmic radiation.

The change in direction of magnetic field can change state of the motion of particles. The orbits of those particles that are rotating around the nucleus of some atom, a lso can be change as well as the orientation and direction of their spin. Particles even can fly through the space, which our instruments register as ray of particles. We can actually see the traces of some particles leave as they are fly through certan media. And we can certainly detect the difference between particles and waves.

But...?

Planck’s Constant or Angular Momentum?

The first sign of trouble come in 1905 with Albert Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect. Photoelectric effect - the liberation of an electric charge by electromagnetic radiation incident (i.e., falling on) on a substance - includes photoemission, photoionisation and photoconduction. The ability to produce electrocity by using the photoelectric effect – in this case, from light striking metal - led Einstein to hypothesize that a light also (in addition to its waves proporties) has the characteristics of a particle; scientists now call such a particle a photon. If we drop a stone in a pond, we generate ripples (waves) in the water. It is clear that the stone and waves are to different events.

However, because light exhibit both photoelectric t and wave properties, physicists have developed a mathematical description of the behavior of Micro-objects (sub-atomic particles, atoms and molecules) in terms of both waves and particles. This is because scientists assume that the Microobjects are represent a separate kind of matter, which combine the properties of particles and waves simultaneously, and they call this logical contradiction Wave-Particle Duality.

Alternative to duality

As one might expect, particles travel through space at different speeds. Surprisingly, however, particles do not have to move through space to accomplish "work"[11] at some distant point or to send a message to their relative across space. As we mantioned above, cosing an electrical charge to oscillate creates in vacuum the longitudinal and shear waves. Those longitudinal waves create the displacement of the Microgalaxies in space along the line of propagation of light. Threfore, the photoelectric effect may occur because longitudinal (compression) waves transmit enough energy to eject an electron from a distant atom.

The key to the apparent dualism of light, than, may lie in the fact that particular spectrum, amplitude or pattern of radiation that is emitted by some osscilating charge will change the state of motion of some some corresponding charge of some Micrstructure, Macrostructure or Astrostructure.

For example, electrical charges accelerate up and down in some transmitter and electromagnetic radiation is emitted. At some distance, alike charges will vibrate in your car’s radio antenna, for example, in resonanse with that cosmic field oscillation.

Quantified energy

In the classical Rutherford picture of atomic structure, electrons orbiting electrons produced electromagnetic radiation, and the frequency of light emmited by a particular electron was the same as the orbital frequency of that electron. One day, however, scientists noticed that a hot atom emits only a few spectric wavelengths of radiating energy, rather than the broad range of wavelengths that Rutherford’s model predicts.

Niels Bohr proposed an alternative theory. He suggested that electrons could orbit the nucleus of an atoms without radiating energy . He proposed that they usualy exist in precise, fixed orbits or paths about the nucleus of tha atom, each orbit having a distinct energy level.. However, instead of continually radiating energy, an electron only gives off energy after obsorbing electromagnetic radiation from an external source. When absorbing the energy an electron jumps from one energy state (orbit) to the next higher orbit and when emitting or giving off energy, an electron jumps to lower orbit. In modern terms, atoms only give off photons [12]after being excited by an incoming photon, instead of continually radiating energy.

According to modern physics the energy E of a single frequency light beam is some whole number multiple of hf, so :

E = hf (kilograms) x (meters) ² x (seconds) ^-2 where:                           Formula (19)

(f) - frequency and (h) is Planck’s Constant.

Bohr’s model of the atom stated that classical physics can not be applied to the Microworld. Instead, Bohr started using what we now call "Quantum Pysics".

Bricks of Matter-Energy

Just as the mass of any compound is some whole-number multiple of the mass of a molecule of that compound, so the electrical charge of the object can be quantified as some whole-number multiple of the charge of an electron (the classical value of that elementary charge is 1.6 x10 ^-19 coulombs).

Once scientific observers theorized that atoms served as the building blocks of all material structures.

Although, quantum theory may be helpful in a statistical or mathematical description of micro-interaction, hawever, the quantum Univerce does not offer us any logical explanation for the apparent paradox of the particle - wave duality. On the contrary, quantum theory makes the Microvorld and the Macroworld seem even more disparate. 

Besides, since matter seems to be capable of infinite subdivision, the quantum theory hardly offers the best explanation of the structure of Universe and interaction between matter and space.

Old reliable "Working Horse" – Classical Mechanics

Now let us return, for a moment, to classical mechanics. Any object on the Macroscale , Microscale or Astroscale can rotate. Furthermore, every speeding mass has energy because of its motion. Thus, the kinetic energy [13] of an electron during its rotation around the nucleus equals:

E (kin.) = m v² / 2                                                         Formula (20)

By comparing Formulas (19) and (20), we get:

m v² / 2 = hf

And from that, Planck Constant (h) will be equal to:

h = m v² / 2 f                                                              Formula (21)

Since, according to Formula (1) f = v / 2pr we can write:

h = m v² x 2pr / 2 v = p m v r                                                Formula (22)

If an electron with a mass on the order of 10^-30 kilograms has an orbit 10^-10 meters and is rotating around the nucleus of the atom with a speed 6.3 x 10⁵ meters per seconds, we will have:

h = p r m v = 3.14 x 10 ^-10 x 10 ³⁰ x 6.3 x 10 ⁵ = 3.14 10 ^-35 (joules) x (seconds)

or (kilograms) x (meters^{) 2} x (seconds) ^–1

In the (SI) system of units the classical value of Planck’s Constant h = 6.6 x 10 ^-34 ( joules) x( seconds)

Also, we see that the dimensions of Planck’s Constant (h) coincide with the dimensions of the Angular Momentum (L).The Angular Momentum of a rotation system can be measured by the same equation as the Planck Constant:

L = 2 p r m v (kilograms) x (meters) ² x (seconds) ^–1                                    Formula (23)

Newton’s first law of inertia of rotating systems states: In the absence of external forces acting on a rotating body or system, the total angular momentum of the system remaines constant.

Therefore, rotating microstructures, possibly, will obey the law of conservation of Angular Momentum and – as long as no additional force acts upon (i.e., affects) the rotation system - the numerical value of rmv is a constant and so is the Planck’s Constant.

The limitation of the scale

In the Macroworld, we can measure most objects. We can calculate and predict the orbit and perion of rotation of our orbital stations or satelites. We can see, for example, that when some comet is close to the sun (i.e., its radius of the orbit around the sun is smaller), its velocity is higher. When that same comet is distant from the Sun (r is large), its velocity is much lower.

As we have mentioned previously, we are not physicaly capable to register our hypothetical Mictostars and Mictogalaxies. Also we are not capable to register the Microstars radiation and even, possibly, shorter octave of the radiation inside the Microcism , which might be responcible for such activity as the gradual stretching of the bowstring of subatomic particle orbit. All that we can perceive are different patterns and spectrum of electromagnetic radiation caused by new state of motion, the decay, synthesis or collision of such complex Microsubstances as quarks and electrons.

For some example from our well-known surrounding: we do not see how the hot water evaporates inside the teapot, however we can assume that the water is boiling when the lid of our teapot is jumping.

To make matter worse, these vibrations must be reflected first either by our senses or our instruments. In the other words, the elementary particles (inside the atoms of the gages of our instruments or of our own senses) have to vibrate in resonance with altered amplitude, pattern and frequency of radiation caused by some processes on the Microscale before our consciousness can interpret that information.

Resonance

Elementary particles insine the atoms behave as tiny oscilators. Incoming radiation with a frequency withing the range of their oscilation frequency of some atom will set an electron into vibration. However, if the frequency of the incoming radiation is a poor match for the oscilating or resonant frequency of the atom-electron system, then that radiation will be absorbed and its energy transformed into heat.

By analogy, examine the familiar strings of a guitars or a piano. Strings of different lengths and thickness, when stroked, each create a unique sound, each in a particular range of frequency. When the musician plays a particular note, this sends out sound waves, vibrating at their spetific frequency. When this happens, only the nearby strings that are designed for, and tuned to, this range of frequency will respond and vibrate in resonance.

The fact that we can not perceive or directly measure mass, energy, speed, location and frequency on the subatomic scale cannot be taken as evidence that the structure and mechanism of interaction at the subatomic level are entirely different from the structure and mechanism of interaction between stellar formations.

Toward the Super-Unified Field Theory

Let us now summarize the possible hierarchy of a rising field, from the Subatomic to the Astronomical scale.

The Cosmos is imbue with radiation of different wavelength, amplitude, pattern and frequency, and it is hard to draw the border between various kind of cosmic impulses.

Still, just as material structures that differ in mass and size can be arranged in some particular qualitative groups, so all cosmic vibrations can be arranged into distinctive basic types of radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation

A disturbance which propagates outward from any electric charge which oscillate or is acvcelerated. It consists of vibrating electric and magnetic field which move at the speed of light and are at right angles to each other and to the direction of motion. We call this phenemenon - Electromagnetic radiation.

The surfaces of the stars emit various spectrums of these impulses, including gamma rays, x-rays, heat, light waves, and radio waves. The wavelengths of this octave of cosmic vibrations varies from 10 ^-12 meters to 10 ⁸ meters. Frequency of electromagnetic waves varies from10 ²⁰ (seconds) ^-1 or hertz to 1 (seconds) ^-1 or 1 hertz. As we have supposed previously, the average frequency of electromagnetic radiation will be on the order of 10 ¹⁰ hertz and the average wavelength of these waves will be on the order of 10 ^-2 meters.

So far electromagnetic radiation is the only octave of cosmic vibration that we can detect with our tools, and, to a more limited extent, with our perceptions.

All space between the stars and galaxies is filled with this octave of radiation , let as name it Electromagnetic Background Radiation.

Astro-Strong Attraction

The cosmos is saturated with background electromagnetic waves, and any planets, and stars in space are surrounded by the pressure of cosmic electromagnetic field. Part of this electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by the stars that make up stellar-formations. The difference in the density between electomagnetic radiation fields in free space and the density of radiation fields near some stellar formation creates the Astrogravitational potential which allows Astrobodies to form the more complex structures that constitute galaxies and various formations of galaxies. These forces of attraction would be Asro-strong in spite of the fact that they are from our scale of space-time weaker by a factor of 10 ³⁵ – 10⁴² than atomic nuclear forces.

Astro-Electromagnetic Radiation

At the same time, stellar-formations, which interact with the flow of electromagnetic radiation (as a structure that immersed in it) and with surrounding Astro-oblects, may behave as Astrocharges with different state of motion, orientation of orbits and spin.

Under internal processes (such as the birth of pulsars or supernovas) or under such processes as galactic collapses, collisions, integration and disintegration the relatively stable balance between the surrounding Astro-phormations can be broken and Astro-structures may change their state of motion or direction of spin.

Such changes in state of motion of, let as say, Astro-Structure-Charges will create Astro-Electromagnetic pulse that compress surrounding galaxies and living a zone of lessened pressure behind them. This disturbance will travel outward from Astro-charge , (which oscilate or is accelerateed), and will transmit energy across the space. Therefore, the Cosmos is also saturated with the lower (according to our human scale of space-time) octave of vibration – Astro-Electromagnetic radiation.

As we hypothesize above, the difference in radii between a basic formation on the Microscale and one on the Astroscale is on the order of 10 ³⁵. Therefore, let as assume that an average frequency of the Astro-Electromagnetic radiation will be lower than the average frequency of an Electromagnetic vibration by a factor of 10 ³⁵ or will be on the order of 10 ^-25 (seconds) ^-1, with a wavelength on the order of 10 ³³ meters.

Micro-Electromagnetic Radiation.

Now, let us returen to our hypothetical Microstars twhich are emitting Micro-Electromagnetic radiation. The Cosmos is saturated with octave of this high frequency background vibration. If we again assume thet the difference in size between our Sun and some Microstar is the same difference that we see between the radius of a proton and that of a galaxy (10 ³⁵), than the average frequency of this spectra of radiation could be higher then the average frequency of electromagnetic spectra by an order of 10 ³⁵, which puts it on the order of 10 ⁴⁵ (seconds) ^-1, with a wavelength on the order of 10 ^-37 meters.

Because the spaces between components which builed up our Macroworld are so vast, all chemical substances which are counterpart of our macroworld, planets, and stars are almost transparent for these octave of radiation.. Nevertheless, some percentage of this radiation produced by our hypothetical Microstars is absorbed by the mass of molecules which builed up all Macro-objects planet and stars. As we have hypothesize obove, we, ourselves, are exposed to that Microstars radiation from all directions. However, less amount of this undetectable waves comes from the Earth, since some part of that impulses is absorbed by its mass. This difference in radiation pressure we grasp as the Earth atraction.

So, in our opinion, we should not to try to catch gravitons (theoretically deduced particle postulated as the quantum of the gravitational field), possibly, they not exist. The Microstars radiation when interacting with Macro-objects creates gravitational attraction between the Macro-bodies.

Subatomic Attraction

It is possible, that the cosmos is also saturated with the ultra-high (according to our; human scale of space-time) octave of radiation, what we will call Ultra-Micro-Electromagnetic radiation.

This Universal octave of vibration would be approximately by 35 order of a magnitude higher in frequency than the average frequency (10⁴⁵ hertz) most probably emitted by our hypothetical Microstars. Therefore, that cosmic vibrations should have on avarage frequency on the order of 10 ⁸⁰ (seconds) ^-1, with a wavelength in the order of 10 ^-72 meters.

This radiation, undetectable for our instruments, freely penetrates any formations of our hipothetical Microstars. Once again, small parts of these Ultra-high frequency impulses are absorbed by Microstars- Formations, creating a Micro-Gravitational potential around them. This Micro-Gravitational potential permits to build up more complex formations of Microstar like our hypothetical Microgalaxies and formations of Microgalaxies (the elementary particles).

Therefore, the Micro-gravitation that we have proposed above and strong (nuclear) forces of attraction is the same phenomenon.

Physicists know that this strong forces of attraction, that holds quarks together to form the nucleus of an atom, has a very short range (about 10 ^-15 meters). In other word, if the wavelength of Ultra-Micro-Electromagnetic vibration is equal on average to 10 ^-72 meters, than the range of influence of this Ultra-micro-gravitational potential will be:

The range of influence = 10 ^-15 / 10 ^-57 = 10 ⁵⁷ of Ultra-Micro-Electromagnetic wavelengths.

At the same time, microstars-formations, which interact with the flow of Ultra-micro-electromagnetic radiation (as a structure that immersed in it) and with surrounding Micro-oblects, may behave as Micro-ocharges with different state of motion, orientation of orbits and spin.

The Electricity and Chemistry

At further distance, the electrons, for example, may continue to interact with other atoms, but the arrangement of the atoms of a molecule in space is dominated - not by Subatomic Attraction – but by the electromagnetic interaction which, as we know, can either attract or repel. Chemists recognize this interaction in the attachment of atoms to each other when compounds are formed.

Therefore, on the border between micro-gravitational atraction and gravitational atraction, we cam examen chemical bonding such us covalent bonding, (when electrons are shared between atoms to form molecules) or ionic bonding (when electrons are transfered from one originaly neutral atom to another). This transfering electrons between atoms will produces negative ions and positive ions [14].

Since any Microstructure is interacting with background cosmic radiation, it is representing a charge and in its turn, when such charge is accelerated, it changes the strength and direction of the background radiation field. We can guess that the spin and orientation of Micro-structure in the flow of background radiation, possibly, responsible why the Microcharges behave as positive, negative or neutral.

The range of wave propagation

It our hypothetical Ultra-Micro-Electromagnetic radiation (Strong or Nuclea forces) propogate at a distanse on the order of 10 ⁵⁷ its wavelength, it would be logical to speculate, that the other our basic Universal Octaves of cosmic vibration (Microstars radiation) also would propagate in space at a distance on the order of 10 ⁵⁷ of their wavelength.

Micro-Electromagnetic radiation, for example, with a wavelength on average of 10 ^-35 meters could propagate at a distance :

10 ^-35 x 10 ⁵⁷ = 10 ²² meters or ten times of the size of our galaxy.

Electromagnetic radiation (the stars radiation, in general), with a wavelength on average of 10 ^–2 meters, probably could propagate at a distance:

10 ^-2 x 10 ⁵⁷ = 10 ⁵⁵ meters.

So, practicaly, according to our human scale we can consider such distance as infinity.

Global Relativity

Being finite creatures, ourselves, we find it hard to accept the notion of infinity. Therefore we try to build abstract geometric and mathematical models of the material world to find the edge of the Universe.Likewise, we search for some fundamental duilding units of matter and energy. Nor can explain the miracle of creation, existence and the evolution of consciousness.

Since we have hitherto failed to find such limits on either a large or small scale, it would not be inappropriate to imagine for a moment that somewhere there exists a species of intelligent, sapien observers, consisting of interconnected galaxies , just as our own tissue consist of atoms and molecules.

As we hypothesize above, the difference in radii between the basic formations on the Microscale and Astroscale is on the order of 10 ^35. Let as assume, therefore, that these Titans are larger than we are by a factor 10 ³⁵ in linear dimension, making them on the order of 10 ³⁵ meters in the length of their bodies.

According to the Universal Similarity [Formula (8)], they should accomplish an action such as one heartbeat and should pass through a distance equivalent to their body-length during their Titan’s time period of 10 ³⁵ a second. Also, the density of their tissue will be in 10 ³⁵ times less than ours.

In analyzing the speed and forces on our Astroworld (which would be part of the Microworld for the Titans), using their own action as a frame of reference, their tools may measure - and their consciousness may interpret - the fantastic speed of rotation, interaction, decay and synthesis of stellar formations.

Their conceptions about energy, spectrum and waves pattern caused by interactions between the stellar formations may be similar to our understanding of strong and week forces and electromagnetism.

They, possibly, would not be able to detect "our" stars or even "our" galaxies that are not engage in some sort of Meta-galactic formations, and will, therefore, perceive our stellar-based, Galactic Universe as a vacuum.

All electromagnetic waves that "our" stars radiate (include light waves) would also be undetectable to their perceptions and instrument. On the other hand, the tissue of their bodies and all surrounding Astroobjects (the Microobjects to the Titans) will be almost transparent for "our" electromagnetic radiation and they would not be able to shield this radiation as well as we can not shield the radiation of our hypothetical Microstars.

Similarly, "our" electromagnetic waves should travel billions of light years through titans body and titans planet, to be partly absorbed, and eventually coalescing, to create around that titans planet gravitational potential. The Titans world would be exposed to, and absorb, part of our electromagnetic radiation pressure from all directions equaly (just as our bodies are exposed to, and absorb, part of radiation of Microstas ), exept that their would be less impulses coming from some imaginary Titan planet, since, part of these impulses will be absorbed by that theoretical colossus.

The vibratory motion of some galactic formations-charges (kind of Astro-electrons) in some kind of Titanic Astro-compound will create an Astro-radiation that would propagates throughout the cosmos. The flow of an Astro-structure – charges that transport energy from one place to another, the Titans may also comprehend as electric current. Similarly, some spectra of Astro-radiation the Titans may perceive as "their" light or heat radiation.

The density of their bodies, which, according to our scale, would be extremely low (on the order of 10³⁵ times lower than the density of our own tissues), will be perceived by such Titans as normal.

If, during one second (our time scale), an electromagnetic wave covers 3 x 10 ⁸ lengths of our bodily dimensions (1 meter), then during 10 ³⁵ second (the Titanic time scale), an Astro-electromagnetic wave will travel a distance 10 ³⁵ x 3 x 10 ⁸ = 3 x 10 ⁴³ meters – which is also 10 ⁸ times their body-length.

Universal Hollogram

Despite the fact that such an assumption is rather speculative and oversimplified, it may help us to visualize what we mean when we say that our perceptions depend upon (are relative to) our spatial dimensions, time scale and density.

We see that the Astrocosm allows us (with a contemporary telescope, of course) to read some information about the material world that we cannot detect in the Microcosm, just as holographic magnification allows us to see a three-dimensional image of information stored by microscopic interference patterns or fringes in the emulsion of photographic plate.

If we were able to make a hologram of a subatomic structure using waves of hypothetical Microstar radiation, and view a holographic film by using 10 ³⁵ – times – bigger - in - wavelength electromagnetic radiation, then we would see an image of interconnecting galaxies.

Just as you can cut a hologram in small pieces and each fragment will still regenerate a whole scene, so it is possible that every point of space contains the code for the divine structure of the entire world.

What about the super-unified force of interactions?

We do not have to create one, for, in unified nature, all forces are, in fact, unified.

The chaos of space radiation interacting with material masses creates a balance of relatively stable material structures and harmony of motion. One manifestation of matter and energy creates the other in this marvelously self-balancing Universe.

Finis

Comments: antsis@hotmail.com , antsis@aecom.yu.edu

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